What Were the Archaeologists Looking For?
On November 28th, 1947, the day before the UN Partition Plan resolution—which essentially guaranteed the establishment of the Jewish state and led to the outbreak of the War of Independence—Professor Eleazar Sukenik, father of future Chief of Staff Yigael Yadin, traveled to Bethlehem to verify rumors about ancient Hebrew scrolls discovered in the Judean Desert: the Dead Sea Scrolls.
This was the most important archaeological discovery in the history of the State of Israel, a direct connection to our past, to Hebrew thought and writing from the Second Temple period before the exile and destruction. The timing of the events reveals that, from a synchronistic perspective, the past seemed to want to bestow its blessing upon the emerging future. The discoverer was a man biologically connected to one of the leaders of that future; it is no coincidence that the scrolls were revealed to Hebrew eyes exactly one day before the international mandate for the new Hebrew state, nor is it a coincidence that they were revealed to the father of the man who would head the Operations Directorate in the terrible war that was imminent.
The case of the Dead Sea Scrolls is not isolated; there is often a profound connection between the discoverer—the archaeologist or historian—and the discovery itself. It seems as if certain people are destined to discover certain things at a certain time—that it must be them and no others. Often, the discovery contains miraculous elements, and the date of the discovery carries significance. While some of the greatest discoveries occurred by chance, in many cases—more than people realize—archaeological discoveries were aided by the psychic abilities of mediums or even the excavators themselves. Conversely, an archaeological discovery often does not stand alone but triggers a chain of synchronic events.
Few people know that many individuals among the first generation of archaeologists were interested in esoteric traditions or were members of secret societies such as the Freemasons; their desire to investigate the past was often entwined with a specific agenda. Much of modern archaeology emerged from a background of Egyptology and excavations in Egypt, often accompanied by a tendency toward alternative interpretations.
Sir Flinders Petrie, considered the “Darwin” of archaeology and the initiator of systematic archaeology (using stratigraphy and pottery typology), went to Egypt to test alternative theories related to the Great Pyramid. He discovered Tell el-Amarna and many other sites in Egypt. Petrie searched for traces of the Hyksos, believing they represented an advanced culture that came to Egypt from elsewhere (hypothesizing the Caucasus) and brought higher civilization with them. He noted they differed from other Egyptians in skeletal structure and skull shape, features that appear in descriptions of the ruling Pharaonic dynasties. He argued that the emergence of Egyptian culture could not be explained ex nihilo but only through external intervention. In the last decades of his life, he excavated in the Land of Israel (at Tell el-Hesi and Tell Jemmeh) in search of traces of this culture.
His main assistant for many years was Margaret Murray, the “Grand Old Woman” of British archaeology. She discovered the Osireion in Egypt and the temples of the Goddess in Malta and Menorca, and also excavated at Tell el-Ajjul in Gaza and Petra in Jordan. In addition to being an archaeologist, Murray was an expert in witchcraft, folklore, and ancient religion. She was ahead of her time and inspired the development of the modern Goddess movement and Wicca. Her assistant in some excavations—including in the Land of Israel—was Gerald Gardner, the man who founded the modern Wicca (Witchcraft) movement. He mainly sought Astarte figurines and remains of ancient magic; among other sites, he excavated with the British archaeologist James Leslie Starkey at Lachish.
In addition to these three prominent figures, there are others who viewed archaeology as a means to prove their faith or discover the truth about the origin of the human species, its destiny, and the spiritual history of the Earth. Among these, the founders of prehistoric research, both locally and abroad, stand out. There were also those who turned to alternative theories, such as Immanuel Velikovsky (1895–1979). He was a historian, physician, polymath, Zionist Jew, one of the founders of the Hebrew University, and the first psychoanalyst in the Land of Israel. A student of Freud, he emigrated to the United States in 1939 and became a prominent figure in alternative history and catastrophism.
But returning to the “conventional” researchers, here are a few words about the fascinating figures who form part of the mosaic of spiritual archaeology in the Land of Israel, concerning the spiritual doctrines they believed in and developed in light of what they found in their excavations.
Spiritual Prehistory
Henri Breuil (1877–1961) is considered one of the greatest researchers of prehistoric caves in the world. He was a French Catholic priest (often referred to as L’Abbé Breuil) who was interested in the origin of man and became the world’s foremost expert on prehistoric cave paintings, especially in France. Among his many achievements, he was the first specialist to visit and authenticate the Lascaux Cave in 1940. He was also the one who interpreted the figures of “horned gods” and “sorcerers” in the Cave of the Trois-Frères (specifically the “Sanctuary” chamber), where a figure is depicted with an owl’s head, antlers, and animal parts, with only his lower body and dancing posture indicating he is human. This finding strengthened the theory that in prehistoric times there was a universal human religion common to cave dwellers, centered on the “Master of Animals” or shamanic practices.
Based on engravings he discovered and studied in the La Marche Cave, Henri Breuil argued that the ancients were much more developed than previously thought. The engravings appear to show clothing, boots, and hats, as well as symbols that may represent an ancient script. More than 155 engraved figures appear on stone slabs in the cave; most are women, but they are often drawn in a distorted manner with the body larger and diamond-shaped, which may hold symbolic meaning. Breuil argued that the cave art in France proves that early man possessed art and likely a developed spirituality as early as 40,000 years ago, focusing on the feminine principle of procreation linked to the power of nature.
In addition to his importance as a prehistorian, Henri Breuil held deep spiritual views regarding the essence and role of man. He shared these views with his colleagues in prehistoric research, such as Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (a Jesuit priest who excavated in the East and participated in the discovery of Peking Man) and Dorothy Garrod. Garrod was initially Breuil’s student and later excavated in the Land of Israel, discovering the Natufian culture in Judea and on Mount Carmel. Dorothy Garrod was also a convert to Catholicism; her faith was connected to deep spiritual concepts rather than merely the established institution.
In 1933, Henri Breuil visited the Holy Land (apparently to see for himself Dorothy Garrod’s important and surprising findings). On this occasion, together with René Neuville (1899–1952), a prehistorian working in the country who also served as the French Consul, he identified the oldest erotic statue in the world—the Ain Sakhri Lovers. This calcite pebble carving depicts a couple in a sexual embrace; it is a complex and elaborate piece where different parts of the human body (male and female) are revealed from various viewing angles.
The statue was identified by Henri Breuil and René Neuville after visiting the Bethlehem market (or through a dealer in Jerusalem). After a brief investigation, they determined that the statue came from a cave in Wadi Khareitun (Nahal Tekoa) and was approximately 15,000 years old (Natufian period). Its discovery supported the theory that sexuality was sacred in ancient times, part of a culture of the Goddess and fertility. The fact of its “accidental” discovery by such a senior figure has been interpreted by some as evidence of the network of “sympathetic magic” that the Goddess spreads over her children—as if she orchestrated this specific discovery by Henri Breuil.
The connection of Catholic clergy to the study of prehistory does not end with Henri Breuil. There were other Jesuits in Jerusalem who dealt with prehistory:
Alexis Mallon was a Jesuit priest who established the Jesuit presence in Jerusalem almost 400 years after the order’s founder aspired to do so. In 1913, he founded the Jerusalem branch of the Pontifical Biblical Institute (which exists to this day near the French Consulate) and became its director in 1925. He conducted independent excavations—the most famous of which was at Teleilat Ghassul in the Jordan Valley (1929), where an advanced Chalcolithic culture with impressive frescoes was discovered. Mallon also discovered the Shuqba Cave, where Dorothy Garrod (who was English but a student of the Frenchman Breuil) later conducted excavations and first identified the Natufian culture.
Subsequent excavations were often managed or supported by his colleague René Neuville, the French Consul in Jerusalem. Although not a Jesuit, Neuville was a practicing Catholic and a commander in the Order of the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre. Neuville arrived in Jerusalem in 1927 and lived there until his death in 1952. Until 1938, he served as Vice-Consul and was also a prominent member and president of the Palestine Oriental Society. He directed many important prehistoric excavations in the Land of Israel (including Qafzeh Cave). Both Mallon and Neuville were Egyptologists by training, interested in ancient Egyptian culture, and brought antiquities from Egypt to the country—including the only mummy in Jerusalem, located in the Pontifical Institute on Emile Botta Street.
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955) was an important prehistorian and one of the most influential Catholic theologians of the 20th century (whose influence continues into the 21st) who adopted the evolutionary perspective. He argued that there is a point in the future—the Omega Point—that pulls the evolutionary development of man, as well as the entire universe, toward complexity and a consciousness of love.
According to Teilhard’s theory, the universe is composed of particles of matter and love. The forces of love are drawn to each other and will bring matter from a state of chaos to a state of organized complexity, culminating in a future super-consciousness. We will then transition to the next stage in the development of the Earth and the human.
We have already transitioned from the Geosphere (inanimate matter/atmosphere) to the Biosphere (the creation of plants and animals). Now, we are transitioning to the state of the Noosphere, where a kind of “thought atmosphere” is created, within which human beings will be able to shed their egos and move toward a new consciousness. The spread of humanity across the Earth, combined with the development of information and the complexity of thought, leads to the creation of a “thinking layer” enveloping the planet. This layer will eventually converge at the Omega Point into a collective super-consciousness of love—representing the full realization of the Divine (or the Cosmic Christ).
His famous book, The Phenomenon of Man, explores the connection between the evolution of matter and the evolution of consciousness. It initially drew opposition from the Church because it advocated Darwinian methods (despite Teilhard being a Jesuit priest). However, years later, Pope Benedict XVI spoke approvingly of his vision (in 2009), particularly referencing his description of the universe as a “living host.”
According to Teilhard, the question is: What caused the emergence of the new human type? And what caused him to develop and create culture? If we treat human history as a sequence of unrelated random events, then there is no point in studying it beyond intellectual curiosity. But if there is a connecting thread of development and progress, then the discovery of the past will guide us toward the future. Thus, driven by a sense of missionary calling, Teilhard embarked on journeys and excavation expeditions around the world (including the discovery of Peking Man), as did his colleagues.
In other words, the study of the past—especially in the prehistoric context—was linked for them to a new kind of Christian spirituality. This phenomenon also appeared among researchers and archaeologists who worked in Jerusalem, in both prehistoric and ancient historical-biblical contexts.
The Father of Archaeology Buried in Jerusalem
The man considered the “Darwin” of archaeology and the initiator of systematic archaeology (dating by stratigraphy and pottery typology) is Sir Flinders Petrie (1853–1942). He was the son of William Petrie, an inventor and electrical engineer, and the father of John Petrie, a mathematician who discovered the structure of the Petrie polygon. He was the teacher of Margaret Murray, Howard Carter (discoverer of Tutankhamun’s tomb), and many other prominent archaeologists.
Petrie spent his early life measuring and surveying ancient sites; he was the first person to scientifically measure and survey the stone circle at Stonehenge. Following correspondence between his father and Charles Piazzi Smyth—a proponent of alternative pyramid theories—Petrie set out in 1880 to precisely scan and measure the Great Pyramid of Giza to prove or disprove these theories. His encounter with the antiquities of Egypt changed the course of his life; captivated by the pyramids and temples, he decided to become an archaeologist.
From 1884, he began to systematically excavate at various sites across Egypt. Over the years, he discovered the workers’ village at Thebes, Tell el-Amarna, the Merneptah Stele (the “Israel Stele”), and excavated at Luxor, Dendera, Avaris, and many other sites. During the excavations, he noticed that different types of ceramics appeared in different layers of excavation. He intuited that archaeological layers could be dated by ceramic findings. Additionally, he possessed a keen understanding that allowed him to distinguish between different types of vessels and an analytical ability to classify them. He established the typology of pottery vessels, and thus, scientific archaeology effectively began.
Petrie excavated in Egypt for 44 years (apart from a short trip to Palestine in 1890, during which he excavated at Tell el-Hesi). However, in 1926 (effectively starting in 1923/4), at the age of 70, he ceased excavating in Egypt and began excavating in the Land of Israel. His most important excavation was at Tell el-Ajjul. He was certain that this was biblical Gaza (the site is a few kilometers from modern Gaza). His partners included Margaret Murray, James Leslie Starkey, William F. Albright, and others who became pillars of archaeology in the Holy Land. Additionally, he excavated at Tell Jemmeh and Tell el-Far’ah (South) (identified by him as Sharuhen). These sites are located along the Besor Stream (Nahal Besor); their importance lies in their proximity to Egypt—they serve as the gateway between Canaan and Egypt.
Petrie did not take the origins of human history and the existence of advanced civilizations such as Egypt or Sumer for granted. He argued that the emergence of Egyptian culture could not be explained ex nihilo, but only through external intervention. He believed there was an advanced culture of people who came to Egypt from elsewhere (hypothesizing the Caucasus or Mesopotamia) and brought civilization with them. He noted they differed from other Egyptians in skeletal structure and skull shape—features he believed appeared in descriptions of the ruling Pharaonic dynasties. This is known as the Dynastic Race Theory. In the last decades of his life, he excavated in the Land of Israel in search of traces of this culture. This search was linked to his interest in the mysterious Hyksos and their connection to Canaanite culture.
Petrie supported the Zionist enterprise and found a home here. He died in Jerusalem in 1942 and was buried in the Protestant Cemetery on Mount Zion. His tombstone faces east, toward the rising sun, and is engraved only with his name and the Egyptian symbol of life—the Ankh.
