The Modern Era and Its Meaning
The Modern Era is perhaps the most fascinating subject of all, because we are living in the midst of it—in the middle of a process that began with the Industrial Revolution at the end of the 18th century and continues today with the Digital Revolution. We are undergoing a process of extreme change in ways of life, a transformation unlike anything that preceded it.
Until the Modern Era, whether in ancient Egypt, the Roman Empire, or the Ottoman Empire, people lit their homes with oil lamps and traveled by horse or carriage. Today, we enjoy electric lighting and travel in automobiles. Man has been freed from a large part of his external material (natural) constraints. The new cities allowed for an artificial living environment that sustains human life and is not entirely dependent on the cycles of nature—day and night, winter and summer. The food chain was secured, medicine advanced, and most people in the Western world, including Israel, today live in conditions far superior to those of kings in the Middle Ages.
In addition, the Modern Era is characterized by the development of science, freedom, liberation from thought dogmas and social systems based on ancient religions, and an emphasis on reason as a tool under man’s control rather than being subject to external forces. Man now relies on his own intellectual power and capacity, which seem limitless. In the beginning of the Modern Era, it seemed that humanity was heading toward a new age of enlightenment, freedom, progress, and prosperity.
The Modern Era called for the creation of a modern state that would serve as a supportive framework for the new ways of life, a state based on law and liberty. A new class of free urban citizens emerged, along with a new consciousness based on information previously unavailable to the masses—distributed first via printed material, books, and newspapers, and later by other means of communication such as the telegraph and radio.
The question remains: Has this incredible technological development been accompanied by a corresponding spiritual development? Man now possesses great power he did not have before, improved conditions, and new possibilities. Humanity invented electricity; the question is whether this and other inventions have served its spiritual advancement and contributed to the shared human search for meaning throughout the generations. Another question is whether there was some spiritual impetus—an energetic influence from the universe—that precipitated the amazing development we are experiencing today.
What began in England in the 18th century was a drive for people to leave agriculture and move to do industrial work, whether in mines or factories (especially textiles) in the developing cities. It was often more comfortable to earn a living there, and perhaps safer. Not everything was bleak, literally or figuratively. Improvements in agriculture, land ownership laws, and technological inventions made it possible to free more and more people from farm labor. Conversely, favorable laws, accessible financing, technological innovations, and open markets enabled more people to establish ventures and factories where workers could be employed. The spirit of Protestantism and the ideas of the Enlightenment contributed to this shift, leading to the creation of factories employing thousands of workers, around which cities were built, fostering a new social class and way of life.
Among the technological inventions, improvements in cotton textile production, iron production, and mechanical tools (which enabled iron processing and machine manufacturing) were crucial. Subsequently, steam engines made of iron and fueled by coal became pivotal. The use of coal as fuel was far superior and more efficient than wood, providing the energy needed for both engines and gas lighting. Thus, the Industrial Revolution was founded on coal, iron, and textiles. Another component was the development of chemistry and the production of new chemicals for washing, soaps, and a variety of products. Humanity rediscovered the use of concrete (lost since the Roman period), learned to produce glass using new industrial methods, and found efficient ways to illuminate and heat homes. Paper production also advanced with efficient techniques. All these inventions occurred in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, revolutionizing ways of life.
The Industrial Revolution solved the problem of nutrition. Simultaneously, medical advancements reduced infant mortality rates, leading to a population surge. A mass proletariat gathered in cities; London grew to six million people, Paris to three. Women began to gain rights and enter the workforce. Society subsisted on improved industrial and agricultural production.
The simultaneous appearance of so many significant inventions, the dramatic change in ways of life, and the synchronization of technological development with intellectual, medical, legal, and scientific progress, all led to a change unprecedented since the dawn of history. People could move quickly from place to place, and one expression of this was an awakened desire to discover the world—and consequently, the sea, the sky, and space. Expeditions were sent to Africa to discover the sources of the Nile, but also to the Land of Israel. The British Royal Geographical Society and other research societies spurred the re-discovery of the Land of Israel in the 19th century [1].
If a person is a believer—and not necessarily within the framework of conventional religions—the underlying assumption is that there is a divine plan, a guiding hand, a synchronization of events that has a reason and a purpose. If not everything is random—”so it goes,” as Kurt Vonnegut said. If so, then there must be a reason for dramatic changes that happened within the Industrial Revolution.
During the era of the Goddess culture, the perception was that the Great Mother teaches and educates human beings toward a new, mature life, revealing her secrets (of plant, minerals and animals) through her priestess sisters. Technological and cultural development was part of religious development and existed within that framework. At the time of the formation of cities and the beginning of history, cultural, intellectual, and social development was perceived as a consequence of the gods intervention and in relation to them. Christian Europe and the Islamic world of the Middle Ages perceived historical development as being directed by a divine hand leading to redemption. Suddenly, the greatest change in history seems to exist by itself, unconnected to anything, without reason or purpose.
From the time of the caves until the end of the 18th century, illumination was provided by oil lamps or candles; suddenly, we have gas lamps that turn night into day. From the time of the caves until the end of the 18th century, transportation relied on horses and carriages; suddenly, we have railroads and trains. From the time of the caves until the end of the 18th century, sea transport depended on sailing ships; suddenly, we have steamships. From the time of the caves until the end of the 18th century, clothes were woven on a loom; suddenly, they are mass-produced by machines. From the time of the caves until the end of the 18th century, there was no massive use of iron (it was difficult to shape and expensive to produce); suddenly, iron can be shaped into delicate machines, forged, and produced in large quantities—suddenly, there are lathes and drills. From the time of the caves until the end of the 18th century, wood was used for furnaces and bellows; suddenly, people began to use coal and far more energy-efficient methods. The same applies to glass, paper, and concrete.
Parallel to this, there was an agricultural reform—improvements that provided a surplus of food, as well as skilled labor for factories. There was a development of trade, banking, and economics supporting private initiative, industry, and commercial companies; patent laws encouraging inventions; advances in chemistry and physics allowing for efficient industrial processes and products; and advances in medicine that prolonged and improved life expectancy.
It seems as if there was some kind of active spirit causing all these things to happen. In a believing society, this would have been perceived as the Hand of God. But the Hand of God for what purpose? It seems as if God wants human beings to gather in cities and enjoy better living conditions, economic and intellectual freedom, employment, and medical security. But to what end? So that they can praise Him properly? Build temples? Develop faith? None of these things happened; if anything, the spirit of the era pushed in the opposite direction: towards individualism, rationality, and secularism.
The Industrial Revolution followed the Age of Enlightenment, which pushed towards universalism, liberty, human rights, and the use of reason and rational thought instead of reliance on tradition and religion. But what is the inner spiritual validity for this change? Why should human rights, for example, be respected if the religious axiom that man is created in the image of God is no longer accepted?
Spirituality is natural to man. The proof is that in all cultures, at all times, and in all places—even among societies that had no contact with other civilizations, such as the Aborigines in Australia—there is a belief in life after death, spiritual worlds, the possibility of an initiatory journey, holy places, holy people (shamans), religious rituals, and so on [2]. Spirituality is natural to man, like music and art; even if we send people to the moon, they will develop a certain kind of spirituality. So, what is the spirituality that accompanies the new era? This book will attempt to answer this question by observing what happened in Jerusalem in the 19th and 20th centuries, based on the understanding that Jerusalem is a microcosm of spiritual traditions in Western civilization.
The renowned historian of religion Mircea Eliade argues that man is homo religiosus [3]; he needs something to believe in, a holy place and a holy time. Only in the last 200 years, with the advent of the Modern Era, has man separated from traditional religion and faith. However, the structures of religion have been preserved even in the new ways of life. Part of this impulse can be found in nationalism becoming a kind of new religion; another part can be found in the belief in science as the force that will lead the human race forward toward a period of enlightenment, freedom, and prosperity; and yet another part can be found, in my understanding, in the development of culture, music, sports, literature, and the arts.
We will begin by addressing these topics, and then we will review new religious movements, new forms of spirituality, and new spiritual teachers appearing during this time who have some connection to Jerusalem. This subject will become clearer after reading the entire book, which demonstrates how deeply spiritual traditions were integrated into the development of modern Jerusalem, just as they were in ancient times.
The Rise of Nationalism as a New Religion
One of the major consequences of the Industrial Revolution was the awakening of nationalism, which functioned as a kind of new religion. People became willing to die for the state, serve it, fight for its existence, and adhere to its laws and ethos. They began to identify primarily with the nation-state, rather than solely with a religion or local culture. This led to the unification of Italy and Germany, as well as the creation of new states in Central Europe, the Balkans, South America, and elsewhere.
The nation adopted rituals, memorial days, holidays, duties, and rights, which served as a kind of new religion. Nationalism developed an ideology and a morality based on national literature, charismatic leaders, and defined enemies. The national self-conception of several states—such as France, England, and later Germany and Italy—extended beyond the local nation, projecting a universal historical role: a mission to bring culture and civilization to the world. A person was now primarily English or French, rather than Catholic, Norman, or Huguenot.
The awakening of modern nationalism led the Greeks, Serbs, and other Balkan peoples to fight for their independence, alongside the Italians, Hungarians, and other European nations. Even those who were already independent, such as the French and English, sought to establish a different kind of state than existed previously.
This national awakening was accompanied by a cultural renaissance: the revival of language, the fostering of a national ethos, new construction, economic and social development, and the mobilization of human ideals for the sake of the nation. The new urban masses formed the basis for the national movement; uprooted from the extended family, rural life, or the traditional guild, they found in the nation a new focus for personal and social identification.
The new nationalism spurred the writing of books and newspaper articles; ideas were disseminated, and historical-political events took on a messianic and religious significance in the eyes of the masses. Secret societies often supported these national struggles. The core idea was that the new state would not be subject to the arbitrary rule of kings; rather, it would constitute a rectified framework for life in which individual rights were respected and promoted—a kind of secular eschatological ideal.
Culture as Modern Ritual
Part of the meaning of modern life is found in cultural life. The development of the printing press led to the flourishing of literature and poetry. Economic prosperity and urbanization made musical performances accessible to the masses, ranging from operas and concerts to other musical styles. Theater became accessible to the general public through mass communication, leading to the development of cinema, radio, and television. Art and museums democratized the aesthetic experience, which for some elites became a kind of new religion transmitting messages from unseen worlds.
In the modern world, one can find public spaces that function like modern temples, such as museums or theaters. In these places, rituals occur, and messages are conveyed. Sometimes the type of message and the experience incorporate a kind of religious sentiment or something similar, such as the aesthetic experience. In any case, it offers exposure to a larger world, outside the bounds of our daily acquaintance and interests.
It seems as if the mystery dramas of the ancient world’s religions have been replaced by literature, theater, and music. In the initiatory processes of the ancient world, these three components were central; in Western society, they are part of what is called “culture.” The pursuit of current trends in culture sometimes assumes a religious character. There is a certain milieu to which a “cultured” person must be exposed, cultural heroes who serve as saints, and thinkers who replace the prophets.
The Religion of Science
Science itself is based on critical inquiry, but the belief that it can solve everything—including the problem of the meaning of life and death—often becomes an almost religious conviction based on emotion. Science is not intended to deal with matters in the realm of faith, the hidden, life after death, or alternative realities. Even if we agree that there is no proof of the existence of such an ontological reality, it remains—as we explained earlier—an internal reality within man, consisting of subconscious archetypes, and the approach to them is not through logic. Therefore, the arguably blind belief that science can solve everything prevents a society like ours—and the individuals who personally hold this view—from addressing topics such as the unseen worlds, the soul and the destiny of man. This belief represses engagement with the subject of death, contrary to the practice of all human societies that preceded us. When people are asked about this domain, they often give automatic answers like “there is nothing,” without having dedicated a single moment of genuine thought to it.
The quasi-religious belief in science leads people and society to assume that the various branches of science cover the entire range of human experience. It arrogates all areas of life to itself. Thus, the discussion of the subject of the soul, for example, is considered the domain of psychology. Without having any deep concept of it, the believer is sure that this branch of science covers the territory and provides answers regarding the essence of man’s inner life. This is not the case, because psychology primarily deals with the healing of mental imbalance and mental illnesses; it does not claim to provide absolute answers as to what the soul is or what the purpose of human life is. Moreover, it is a collection of theories whose proponents often do not agree among themselves on their fundamental tenets.
The development of science without a parallel spiritual development has led to the concentration of immense power in the hands of humanity and the greatest disasters in human history: a massive number of casualties from advanced weapons, atomic bombs, the pollution of the Earth, and a distancing from basic human values. The moment the dogma that “science will solve everything” is accepted, it prevents the adoption of a balancing approach that would allow for a full and progressive human life. Like any religion, the one-dimensional zeal of this belief leads to intolerance toward the different and the “other,” which, in the case of the religion of science, is expressed through mockery, sarcasm, criticism, and disregard, rather than physical persecution
Mesmerism: Between Science and Spirituality
The remarkable technological development of the Modern Era was accompanied by the appearance of new spiritual doctrines that utilized scientific terminology but pointed to a reality beyond the physical world. Parallel to the discovery of hidden forces such as gravity by Newton, or electricity by Benjamin Franklin and others, claims began to emerge regarding the existence of additional hidden forces behind the world of phenomena—as asserted by some ancient religions and especially by the occult sciences. These forces, it was believed, move the world, and controlling them would bring humanity to a new level of development. Ignorance and lack of awareness of them render human beings blind and subject to the whims of fate.
At the end of the 18th century, when a well-known Viennese physician named Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) developed a theory about a substance he described as a kind of ether, or plasma, permeating all bodies, the space between stars, and surrounding the human body. This invisible “fluid” resembles the Stoic concept of Pneuma, the Hindu Prana, the “Ether” of Hermeticism, and more. The characteristic of this ethereal substance is “Animal Magnetism”; it resides in our bodies and is responsible for physical and mental health. A disturbance in its flow can cause disease [4].
Mesmer developed methods to balance and correct the flow of animal magnetism through trance, the use of magnets, and specific gestures (passes), which likely included an early form of hypnosis. He believed in the influence of the celestial bodies on the human organism, arguing that magnetism is found throughout the universe and constitutes a kind of network connecting all things.
Mesmer lived for a time in Paris and operated under the patronage of Louis XVI. His methods were received favorably in the high society of Europe. Mozart was his friend (and Mesmer was an early patron of the composer). However, a royal commission headed by Benjamin Franklin investigated and subsequently discredited his healing methods. Since Franklin was famous for his work on electricity, his judgment carried great weight.
The argument of Mesmer and his successors was that there are additional forces that science has not yet discovered which operate upon and influence us. The fact that we do not know how to name them does not mean they do not exist, just as electricity existed before it was scientifically understood. And just as electricity can be harnessed for the benefit of humanity, so too can this “magnetism.” Mesmerism became an important component in the development of spiritual doctrines and groups in Europe and the United States in the 19th century.
The center of Mesmerism was originally in Vienna, and some claim [5] (see chapter on Viennese Spirituality) that this laid the groundwork for the development of psychology specifically in that city, preparing the way for the recognition of the subconscious. The doctrine of Mesmerism later found adherents specifically among Hasidic groups who came to Vienna; they, along with many from the psychoanalytic movement, eventually made their way to Jerusalem.
Spiritualism and Zionism
Starting from the mid-19th century, there was a strong movement of people who claimed the existence of spirits and the possibility of communicating with them. The starting date of modern Spiritualism is considered to be March 31, 1848, when two sisters named Margaret and Kate Fox found a way to communicate with a spirit in a house in upstate New York. Within a few years, the phenomenon spread like wildfire in the salons of Europe and America. Communication with spirits was performed through séances, Ouija boards, crystal gazing, and more.
The father of the movement is Allan Kardec (1804–1869), who published his first book on spirits in 1857 [6]. He tried to approach the subject scientifically and prepared many questions about the meaning of life for ten different mediums who did not know each other. The answers of some of them were similar and proved to him that something else—not they themselves—was speaking through them, and that they (the various spirits) were trying to convey a universal truth about the connection between the world of spirits and life. He published the answers in a series of books and started a kind of “spirit religion” (Spiritism).
Spiritualism became a leisure activity for high society circles in Europe. Communication took place with the spirits of the dead, who provided answers on general and personal subjects. The phenomenon was based on Mesmer’s explanations and Swedenborg’s example of communicating with spirits. Initially, the possibility was open to everyone, but over time there were attempts to organize the movement, alongside claims that only mediums with special powers could communicate.
Towards the end of the century, the custom of consulting Ouija boards spread. This involved not only eccentrics but also statesmen and leaders in society. In England, the Society for Psychical Research was established, whose purpose was to investigate parapsychological phenomena such as spirits, voices, and influences. Esoteric societies revived the ancient sciences of Hermeticism, which claimed a network of influences and a hierarchy of unseen forces controlling the world. The science of magic was renewed in modern guise, and with it, astrology, Tarot, and alchemy; a spiritual movement developed that would later become the New Age movement. However, there was still little discussion regarding a new consciousness or the next stage in the evolution of the human species, though that too would come.
The truth is that Spiritualism appeared in the Land of Israel 3,000 years ago, in the case of Saul going to the Witch of Endor to raise the spirit of Samuel. The surprising thing is that modern Spiritualism also influenced people connected to the history of Zionism. Lord Balfour, for example, who wrote the Balfour Declaration, was the President of the Society for Psychical Research in Britain and frequently consulted with spirits through mediums. Prince Philipp of Eulenburg was one of the people closest to Kaiser Wilhelm, thanks to whom Herzl received a sympathetic audience. The person who recommended that Kaiser Wilhelm meet Herzl was deeply involved in matters of mediums, spirits, and Spiritualism, and even claimed that the Kaiser also inclined toward it. It is possible that the spirits revealed to Balfour and Philipp guided them to act on behalf of the Jewish state.
It is worth mentioning in this context that one of the people closest to Herzl, who helped him in his early days, was William Hechler, a British mystic priest who found a prophecy from the time of Caliph Omar about the return of the Jews to Israel in 1897. He published an article about it in 1894, and two years later, he met Herzl in a synchronistic manner—an event he perceived as the fulfillment of his prophecy. Indeed, the first Zionist Congress, where Hechler was present, took place in 1897, exactly as the prophecies foretold. It is interesting to note that Herzl was also a prophet, saying at that same congress: “At Basel I founded the Jewish State. If I said this aloud today, I would be answered by universal laughter. In five years, perhaps, and certainly in fifty, everyone will recognize it.” Indeed, in 1947, exactly fifty years later, the nations of the world recognized the partition plan.
American Transcendentalism
A new center of Western culture developed in North America, and within it, new spiritual movements appeared, along with a mystical school of thought that can be defined as American Transcendentalism.
The Transcendentalist movement emphasized the power of the individual, his aspiration for good, and his ability to transcend limitations and reach inner insights. It fostered a sense of personal purpose, destiny, and fate, in the spirit of the Romantic movement, connecting man to his higher emotions. The most important figure in this movement was Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), an American writer and poet who engaged with Neoplatonism and Eastern doctrines, combining and transcending both. Emerson delved into Indian writings, appreciating and honoring them. He saw principles, such as polarity (duality), appearing in all things and argued that there is a kind of “Over-Soul” common to all mankind. Transcendentalism is a utopian aspiration for a sublime existence; it relies on the contemplation of nature, through which one can connect to the sense of purpose and reason, and to existence in God [8].
It can be said that Transcendentalism contributes to the Western spiritual heritage—and from it to the New Age movement—the aspiration for individuality and self-actualization within the framework of a connection to the Sublime. This individuality exists in the context of a new consciousness: the understanding of man as part of the unseen worlds, possessing a spiritual destiny, and sometimes also having spiritual guides.
It can be said that Western society relies on two foundations: one is rationalism, whose source is in Athens, and the second is the aspiration for holiness, sanctification, morality, and purpose, whose source is in Jerusalem. Transcendentalism brings the emphasis back to Jerusalem, but this is not the physical Jerusalem; rather, it is the Heavenly Jerusalem, which, as Emerson himself writes, is located in the heart of man.
Spiritual Teachers and The Religious Experience
The Modern Era brought with it great spiritual teachers who are considered by their followers to be the bringers of the future and, in some cases, the manifestation of the Divine for this age—just as Jesus was a divine manifestation 2,000 years ago, and Muhammad 1,400 years ago. Thus, we see new teachers for humanity preaching a new religion suitable for the modern era. Examples include Bahá’u’lláh, the founder of the Bahá’í Faith from Acre; Joseph Smith, the founder of Mormonism in the 19th-century United States; L. Ron Hubbard, the founder of Scientology; and Sun Myung Moon, the founder of the Unification Church.
Many teachers and reformers appeared within the framework of existing religions, bringing with them a new message. Thus, we have Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement in Islam, or Ellen G. White, whose visions led to the founding of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Therefore, when referring to ancient religions, it must be remembered that they are not the same religions of the Middle Ages; they have changed and developed to varying degrees, including Judaism.
Additionally, spiritual teachers founded new movements that are not necessarily part of any specific religion. Madame Blavatsky founded Theosophy; Éliphas Lévi revived esoteric studies in France and the West; Rudolf Steiner established Anthroposophy; G.I. Gurdjieff introduced the Fourth Way; Peter Deunov founded the Universal White Brotherhood, and so on.
Mircea Eliade, the great scholar of religion in the 20th century, argued that the discovery of Buddhist and Hindu scriptures in the 19th century—containing moral doctrine, theology, and philosophy equal to, and sometimes superior to, that of the West—should have been for the people of that time a cultural shock and a stimulating impetus equal to that of the Renaissance, when classical religious literature and thought were rediscovered. This should have sparked a new renaissance of religious thought, philosophy, and theology. While this did happen fully, it occurred partially with the advance of Buddhist, Zen and Yoga Studies and practice [9].
What did happen fully as a consequence of the revelation of the eastern spirituality was the inception of the comparative study of religion and the scientific discipline of Religious Studies, pioneered by Max Müller in 1870. Its great luminaries, as I understand it, include William James, Rudolf Otto, and Mircea Eliade, each contributing another brick to the edifice of understanding the religious phenomenon, its sources, and its characteristics. What makes Religious Studies unique is that this attempt is made from the perspective of religious experience, treating it as an independent and unique faculty in man—somewhat similar to the aesthetic experience—allowing access to parts of the human psyche that cannot be reached in any other way.
Over the years, the discipline of Religious Studies drifted away from the vision of these luminaries, often becoming a label for barren engagement with the minutiae of specific spiritual or religious movements. The internal perspective—which accepts the religious experience as having a right to exist on its own terms and requires its study from a participatory and sympathetic gaze—has largely been abandoned. Instead, the field has often slid into a critical, detached viewpoint that merely categorizes, as frequently happens in academia. The great religious scholars, such as Mircea Eliade, stood on the verge of faith and mystical experience; for a brief moment, there was a chance to bridge research with faith, but today that connection is largely lost. The book before you attempts to return the study of the religious-spiritual experience (in the context of Jerusalem), while adding a transpersonal psychology perspective, including the concept of synchronicity as described by Jung and Pauli [10].
The Modern Era also witnessed the appearance of movements such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and the Theosophical Society at the end of the 19th century. These movements renewed the belief in an ancient primordial wisdom, transmitted by enlightened teachers throughout human history, and in the existence of a complex structure of divine forces. But unlike the Renaissance, which attributed that ancient wisdom to Persia or Egypt, Theosophy, for example, attributes it to Eastern doctrines—Buddhism and Hinduism. From this point on, Western spirituality would be influenced to varying degrees by Eastern doctrines as well. Terms like Yoga, meditation, Prana, and Karma would become part of its vocabulary.
New Religious Movements and Jerusalem
Great religions have been created throughout history around a prophet or an event of divine revelation, and this process continues to this day. The religions that appeared after the beginning of the modern period are called New Religious Movements (NRMs) in academic research. Among them, the Bahá’í Faith, which established its presence fully in the Holy Land at the end of the 19th century, can be mentioned. New religious movements can appear within existing religions, such as the Ahmadiyya in Islam, or as completely new phenomena, and it is interesting to examine their connection to Jerusalem.
Some scholars define new religious movements as those that began after World War II. Others begin “counting” from the millenarian movements of the 1830s and 1840s. I accept the second definition, because the phenomenon must be understood against the backdrop of the fundamental shift that occurred: the modern way of life resulting from the Industrial Revolution. For thousands of years, people lit oil lamps and rode horses; yet, starting from the mid-19th century, faster means of transportation (steamships and trains) emerged, and people began using kerosene (petroleum) and gas for lighting in the developing cities. Night turned into day, and the world became interconnected.
The first new religious movement connected to Jerusalem was the Mormons, whom we have elaborated upon elsewhere. Naturally, new religious movements related to Christianity and Islam sanctify Jerusalem in one way or another. Conversely, new religious movements related to and inspired by Eastern religions generally do not refer to Jerusalem. It would be interesting to research the perception of Jerusalem in Eastern religions and determine whether, for example, it holds an aura of mystery and holiness similar to that of Tibet among Westerners.
At the end of the 19th century, specifically in 1893, international interfaith conferences began to be held, and the Parliament of the World’s Religions was established. The first Parliament convened in Chicago; it took 100 years until another Parliament convened (in 1993), and since then, such a gathering has been held every few years. In my humble opinion, there is no more suitable place than Jerusalem to host such an event.
The New Age is characterized by the discovery of the world—both the physical world (Africa, the Americas, and Asia) and history, including ancient cultures such as Egypt and Babylon. This discovery, along with exposure to ancient and advanced spiritual writings and doctrines, leads to the creation of new spiritual movements. Additionally, in the 20th century, the science upon which the Modern Era rests—in some of its branches, such as psychology and quantum physics—began to converge with ancient religious-spiritual concepts. This convergence serves as raw material for building new religious-spiritual movements. The availability of information and communication allows for the appearance of eclectic and syncretic spiritual religions with a universal character, while the margins of science provide space for pseudo-scientific theories that support this new spiritual inclination.
Freedom and Consciousness in the Modern Era
Throughout history, until the Modern Era, human beings were under some form of authority—political (king), social (family), or religious (priest, rabbi). They accepted this authority willingly or unwillingly, and it was ingrained in the depths of their psyche. Human existence was inextricably linked to being part of a collective, whether it was the tribe in prehistoric times, a kingdom at the dawn of history, or one of the great religions. The meaning of belonging to a certain group—such as Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, or Christianity—implied accepting a specific mode of thought. Even when a person was seemingly free, they remained part of this framework.
This applied not only to religion but also to culture. A Greek person was part of the Greek world, an Egyptian part of the Egyptian world, and changing this was virtually impossible. Historical memory was neither long nor broad; it existed only within a specific cultural narrative. The present seemed as if it would last forever—”what has been is what will be”. Even innovations like the emergence of Christianity, once rooted, became part of a narrative that seemed destined to endure eternally; a threat to it felt like the end of the world. Even if one chose their own path, they ultimately had to account to the gods—whether the Great Goddess in the prehistoric period, the gods who descended from heaven in Egypt, the gods of fate in Greece, or the religious-national God of the monotheistic era. Man was subject to the control of forces greater than himself, connected by a kind of invisible plasma.
In the Modern Era, a new freedom appears, alluded to by Rudolf Steiner in his book The Philosophy of Freedom [11]. Man no longer accounts to something or someone at the end of his life. There is no external entity observing him, as depicted in the Masonic symbol of the All-Seeing Eye. There is no plasma connecting him to a predetermined fate. The paths are open for him to choose what he will be and who he will be. He accounts to himself alone. For a moment, it seemed as if humanity had rid itself of the gods, as Nietzsche claimed.
People were freed from the constraints of faith and religious institutions; they no longer perceived themselves as sinners (in the Christian sense) or as observers of a specific moral order. In the Modern Era, there is no one left to report to. Until the Renaissance, it was God and the Church. During the Renaissance, the ideal of Humanism was added, but even the Enlightenment maintained a belief in Deism—a regulating force in nature—which entailed a sense of moral obligation. There was always a power above man that one was obligated to please or an ideal to aspire to. The Modern Era brings the only time in history when man feels that everything depends on him and his choices. The Godhead, if it exists, has moved inward.
With the digital and communication revolution, and the advancement of technology and modernity, freedom—or perhaps we should call it the illusion of freedom—becomes increasingly identified with the natural state of man. The perception of the New Age is that man creates the reality he inhabits, and everything is possible. But it is unclear which reality is being discussed: physical reality, or the alternative reality offered by the digital age? In the past, there was a shared reality that everyone acknowledged, related to, measured themselves against, and which obligated them—whether it was the feudal structure (essentially religious), the Muslim state of justice of Nizam al-Mulk (of which some try to revive a distorted version today), or the social commitment of the Romans. Today, we face a plurality of realities; everyone convinces themselves of what they already believe and organizes their reality accordingly.
True freedom should have been a choice of moral commitment and a life of meaning born of inner will—by merit, not by grace—somewhat similar to the chivalry movement of the Middle Ages. The truth is that not everything is possible; we live and die, restricted by the processes of life and the limits of human thought. One cannot choose whether or not to age, although Western culture sometimes offers the illusion that this is possible, at least for a time. The only choice, as spiritual teachers throughout the generations have taught, is how to accept this. That is the essence of true liberty.
The code of social conduct—that which will bring beneficial changes to the world—must this time stem from within. In spiritual movements and new religions, this is called the “New Consciousness” that will appear in man, if only he is open enough to allow it. Modern living conditions and the difficulties we experience today are intended to help that consciousness awaken. It seems we are drifting away from spirituality, but a small shift in consciousness can completely change the picture. It all depends on us—not in the grand context, but in the context of the private, personal life of each individual.
Footnotes
[1] Ben-Arieh, Y. (1970). The Land of Israel in the 19th Century, Its Rediscovery. Carta, Jerusalem.
[2] Morgan, M. (1994). Mutant Message Down Under. HarperCollins.
[3] Eliade, M. (1959). The sacred and the profane: The nature of religion (Vol. 81). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
[4] Zeitlin, A. (1967). The Other Reality: Parapsychology and Parapsychic Phenomena. Tel Aviv: Yavneh.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Kardec, A. (1857/2006). The Spirits’ Book: Spiritualist Philosophy: Principles of the Spiritist Doctrine (D. W. Kimble & M. M. Saiz, Trans.). International Spiritist Council.
[7] Davis, A. J. (1847). The Principles of Nature, Her Divine Revelations, and a Voice to Mankind. S.S. Lyon & W. Fishbough.
[8] Emerson, R. W. (2008). “Nature.” In J. Porte & S. Morris (Eds.), The complete essays and other writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson (pp. 3–45). New York, NY: Modern Library.
[9] Eliade, M. (1969). The quest: History and meaning in religion. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
[10] Jung, C. G. (with Pauli, W.). (1952). “Synchronicity: An acausal connecting principle.” In The collected works of C. G. Jung (Vol. 8, pp. 417–531). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
[11] Steiner, R. (1894/1995). The Philosophy of Freedom: Foundations for a Modern Worldview (Trans. M. Wilson). Great Barrington, Massachusetts: Anthroposophic Press. (Original edition published in 1894).
